Mots-clés

Churn Peer-to-peer Divergence Bitcoin Byzantine attack Byzantine adversary Availability Byzantine behaviors Randomized approximation algorithm Distributed systems Markov chain Data stream Large scale systems Performance evaluation Coupon collector problem Markov chains Adversary Asymptotic Analysis Counting problem Clusterized P2P Overlays
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71

Emmanuelle Anceaume

Emmanuelle Anceaume received her PhD in Computer Science from the University Paris-Orsay (Paris-XI) for my work on dependable systems. She spent a post-doctoral year at Cornell University (NY - USA) and worked with Sam Toueg on unreliable failure detectors. She is  a CNRS researcher at IRISA-UMR6074 lab. Her current research group is the  INRIA / IRISA CIDRE research team.  She investigates dependability and security issues in large scale and dynamic systems. For the last few years, she has  been working on data stream algorithms, privacy preserving reputation mechanisms, and consistency issues in large scale dynamic networks with sa deeper focus on blockchains.

 

 

Article dans une revue13 documents

  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, Joanna Jongwane. Le potentiel révolutionnaire de la technologie blockchain. Interstices, INRIA, 2018, 〈https://interstices.info/le-potentiel-revolutionnaire-de-la-technologie-blockchain〉. 〈hal-01827608〉
  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, Yann Busnel. Lightweight Metric Computation for Distributed Massive Data Streams. Transactions on Large-Scale Data- and Knowledge-Centered Systems, Springer Berlin / Heidelberg, 2017, 10430 (33), pp.1--39. 〈10.1007/978-3-662-55696-2_1〉. 〈hal-01634353〉
  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, Yann Busnel, Ernst Schulte-Geers, Bruno Sericola. Optimization Results for a Generalized Coupon Collector Problem. Journal of Applied Probability, Applied Probability Trust, 2016, 53 (2). 〈hal-01397403〉
  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, Yann Busnel, B Sericola. New results on a generalized coupon collector problem using Markov chains. Journal of Applied Probability, Applied Probability Trust, 2015, pp.17. 〈10.1239/jap/1437658606〉. 〈hal-01189564〉
  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, Yann Busnel, E Schulte-Geers, B Sericola. Optimization Results for a Generalized Coupon Collector Problem. Journal of Applied Probability, Applied Probability Trust, 2015, pp.9. 〈hal-01189578〉
  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, François Castella, Bruno Sericola. Analysis of a large number of Markov chains competing for transitions. International Journal of Systems Science, Taylor & Francis, 2014, 45 (3), pp.232--240. 〈10.1080/00207721.2012.704090〉. 〈hal-00736916〉
  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, Yann Busnel. A Distributed Information Divergence Estimation over Data Streams. IEEE Transactions on Parallel and Distributed Systems, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 2014, 25 (2), pp.478-487. 〈10.1109/TPDS.2013.101〉. 〈hal-00998708〉
  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, Yann Busnel, Sébastien Gambs. On the Power of the Adversary to Solve the Node Sampling Problem. Transactions on Large-Scale Data- and Knowledge-Centered Systems (TLDKS), 2013, 8290, pp.102-126. 〈10.1007/978-3-642-45269-7_5〉. 〈hal-00926485〉
  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, François Castella, Romaric Ludinard, Bruno Sericola. Markov Chains Competing for Transitions: Application to Large-Scale Distributed Systems. Methodology and Computing in Applied Probability, Springer Verlag, 2013, 15 (2), pp.305--332. 〈10.1007/s11009-011-9239-6〉. 〈hal-00650081〉
  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, Romaric Ludinard, Bruno Sericola. Performance evaluation of large-scale dynamic systems. ACM SIGMETRICS Performance Evaluation Review, Association for Computing Machinery, 2012, 39 (4), pp.108-117. 〈10.1145/2185395.2185447〉. 〈hal-00736918〉
  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, Francisco Brasiliero, Romaric Ludinard, Bruno Sericola, Frédéric Tronel. Dependability Evaluation of Cluster-based Distributed Systems. International Journal of Foundations of Computer Science, World Scientific Publishing, 2011, 22 (5), pp.1123-1142. 〈10.1142/S0129054111008593〉. 〈hal-00650086〉
  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, Eric Mourgaya, Philippe Raïpin-Parvédy. Unreliable Distributed Timing Scrutinizer to Converge toward Decision Conditions. Studia Informatica Universalis, Hermann, 2008, 6 (2), pp.23--50. 〈hal-00916690〉
  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, Roy Friedman, Maria Gradinariu. Managed Agreement: Generalizing Two Fundamental Distributed Agreement Problems. Information Processing Letters, Elsevier, 2007, 101 (5), pp.190--198. 〈hal-00916769〉

Communication dans un congrès49 documents

  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, Yann Busnel, Vasile Cazacu. Finding Top-k Most Frequent Items in Distributed Streams in the Time-Sliding Window Model. 48rd Annual IEEE/IFIP Interna- tional Conference on Dependable Systems and Networks (DSN 2018), Jun 2018, Luxembourg, Luxembourg. 〈hal-01839930〉
  • Thibaut Lajoie-Mazenc, Romaric Ludinard, Emmanuelle Anceaume. Handling Bitcoin Conflicts Through a Glimpse of Structure. Proceedings of the 32nd ACM SIGAPP Symposium On Applied Computing, Apr 2017, Marrakesh, Morocco. Proceedings of the 32nd ACM SIGAPP Symposium On Applied Computing. 〈10.1145/3019612.3019657〉. 〈hal-01634368〉
  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, Romaric Ludinard, Maria Potop-Butucaru, Frédéric Tronel. Bitcoin a Distributed Shared Register. SSS 2017 - 19th International Symposium on Stabilization, Safety, and Security of Distributed Systems, Nov 2017, Boston, MA, United States. Springer, Proceedings of the 19th International Symposium on Stabilization, Safety, and Security of Distributed Systems, 10616, pp.456-468, 2017, Lecture Notes in Computer Science. 〈10.1007/978-3-319-69084-1_34〉. 〈hal-01522360v2〉
  • Yves Mocquard, Bruno Sericola, Emmanuelle Anceaume. Probabilistic Analysis of Counting Protocols in Large-scale Asynchronous and Anonymous Systems. Proceedings of the 16th IEEE International Conference on Network Computing and Applications, Oct 2017, Boston, United States. 〈hal-01580275v3〉
  • Nicolò Rivetti, Emmanuelle Anceaume, Yann Busnel, Leonardo Querzoni, Bruno Sericola. Ordonnancement dynamique pour un équilibrage de charge quasi-optimal dans les systèmes de traitement de flux. ALGOTEL 2017 - 19èmes Rencontres Francophones sur les Aspects Algorithmiques des Télécommunications, May 2017, Quiberon, France. 〈hal-01519432〉
  • Yves Mocquard, Emmanuelle Anceaume, Bruno Sericola. Optimal Proportion Computation with Population Protocols. Symposium on Network Computing and Applications, Oct 2016, Boston, United States. 2016. 〈hal-01354352v2〉
  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, Yann Busnel, Nicoló Rivetti, Bruno Sericola. Identifier des icebergs parmi des flux de données distribués. ALGOTEL 2016 - 18èmes Rencontres Francophones sur les Aspects Algorithmiques des Télécommunications, May 2016, Bayonne, France. 2016, ALGOTEL 2016 - 18èmes Rencontres Francophones sur les Aspects Algorithmiques des Télécommunications. 〈hal-01303873〉
  • Nicoló Rivetti, Leonardo Querzoni, Emmanuelle Anceaume, Yann Busnel, Bruno Sericola. Groupement de clés efficace pour un équilibrage de charge quasi-optimal dans les systèmes de traitement de flux. ALGOTEL 2016 - 18èmes Rencontres Francophones sur les Aspects Algorithmiques des Télécommunications, May 2016, Bayonne, France. 2016, ALGOTEL 2016 - 18èmes Rencontres Francophones sur les Aspects Algorithmiques des Télécommunications. 〈hal-01303887〉
  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, Thibaut Lajoie-Mazenc, Romaric Ludinard, Bruno Sericola. Safety Analysis of Bitcoin Improvement Proposals. IEEE Symposium on Network Computing and Applications, Oct 2016, Boston, United States. 〈hal-01397685〉
  • Yves Mocquard, Emmanuelle Anceaume, James Aspnes, Yann Busnel, Bruno Sericola. Counting with Population Protocols. International Symposium on Network Computing and Applications (NCA), Sep 2015, Boston, United States. pp.9. 〈hal-01189596〉
  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, Yann Busnel. Estimer la corrélation à la volée entre flux massifs est possible avec très peu de mémoire. ALGOTEL 2015 — 17èmes Rencontres Francophones sur les Aspects Algorithmiques des Télécommunications, Jun 2015, Beaune, France. ALGOTEL 2015 — 17èmes Rencontres Francophones sur les Aspects Algorithmiques des Télécommunications, ALGOTEL 2015 — 17èmes Rencontres Francophones sur les Aspects Algorithmiques des Télécommunications. 〈hal-01147072〉
  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, Yann Busnel, Paul Lajoie-Mazenc, Géraldine Texier. Reputation for Inter-Domain QoS Routing. International Symposium on Network Computing and Applications (NCA), Sep 2015, Boston, United States. IEEE, pp.142-146, 2015, 〈10.1109/NCA.2015.19〉. 〈hal-01190451〉
  • Paul Lajoie-Mazenc, Emmanuelle Anceaume, Gilles Guette, Thomas Sirvent, Valérie Viet Triem Tong. Mécanisme de réputation distribué préservant la vie privée avec témoignages négatifs. ALGOTEL 2015 - 17èmes Rencontres Francophones sur les Aspects Algorithmiques des Télécommunications, Jun 2015, Beaune, France. 〈hal-01148072〉
  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, Yann Busnel, Bruno Sericola. Service d'échantillonage uniforme résiliant aux comportments malveillants. ALGOTEL 2014 -- 16èmes Rencontres Francophones sur les Aspects Algorithmiques des Télécommunications, Jun 2014, France. pp.1--4, 2014. 〈hal-00985631〉
  • Romaric Ludinard, Emmanuelle Anceaume, Yann Busnel, Erwan Le Merrer, Jean-Louis Marchand, et al.. Anomaly Characterization Problems. ALGOTEL 2014 -- 16èmes Rencontres Francophones sur les Aspects Algorithmiques des Télécommunications, Jun 2014, Le-Bois-Plage-en-Ré, France. pp.1--4, 2014. 〈hal-00985641〉
  • Pierre Meye, Philippe Raïpin-Parvédy, Frédéric Tronel, Emmanuelle Anceaume. Toward a distributed storage system leveraging the DSL infrastructure of an ISP. 11th IEEE Consumer Communications and Networking Conference, Jan 2014, United States. pp.2, 2014. 〈hal-00924051〉
  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, Yann Busnel. Deviation Estimation between Distributed Data Streams. 10th European Dependable Computing Conference (EDCC 2014), May 2014, Newcastle, United Kingdom. pp.35-45, 2014, 〈10.1109/EDCC.2014.27〉. 〈hal-00998702〉
  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, Yann Busnel, Erwan Le Merrer, Romaric Ludinard, Jean-Louis Marchand, et al.. Anomaly Characterization in Large Scale Networks. 44th Annual IEEE/IFIP International Conference on Dependable Systems and Networks (DSN), Jun 2014, Atlanta, United States. 2014. 〈hal-00948135〉
  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, Erwan Le Merrer, Romaric Ludinard, Bruno Sericola, Gilles Straub. FixMe : détection répartie de défaillances isolées. Nisse, Nicolas and Rousseau, Franck and Busnel, Yann. 15èmes Rencontres Francophones sur les Aspects Algorithmiques des Télécommunications (AlgoTel), May 2013, Pornic, France. pp.1-4, 2013. 〈hal-00818650〉
  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, Gilles Guette, Paul Lajoie-Mazenc, Nicolas Prigent, Valérie Viet Triem Tong. A Privacy Preserving Distributed Reputation Mechanism. International Conference on communications (ICC), Jun 2013, Budapest, France. 6 p., 2013. 〈hal-00763212v3〉
  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, Erwan Le Merrer, Romaric Ludinard, Bruno Sericola, Gilles Straub. A Self-organising Isolated Anomaly Detection Architecture for Large Scale Systems. Nem-Summit, Oct 2013, France. pp.12, 2013. 〈hal-00907374〉
  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, Yann Busnel, Bruno Sericola. Uniform Node Sampling Service Robust against Collusions of Malicious Nodes. 43rd Annual IEEE/IFIP International Conference on Dependable Systems and Networks (DSN 2013), Jun 2013, Budapest, Hungary. 43, pp.249, 2013. 〈hal-00804430〉
  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, Yann Busnel. Sketch *-metric: Comparing Data Streams via Sketching. Avresky, D.R. 12th IEEE International Symposium on Network Computing and Applications (IEEE NCA 2013), Aug 2013, Boston, United States. 12, pp.11, 2013, 〈10.1109/NCA.2013.11〉. 〈hal-00926685〉
  • Christian Artigues, Yves Deswarte, Jérémie Guiochet, Marie-José Huguet, Marc-Olivier Killijian, et al.. AMORES: an architecture for mobiquitous resilient systems. ARMOR'12, Apr 2012, Sibiu, Romania. Article N°7 (7p.), 2012, 〈10.1145/2222436.2222443〉. 〈hal-00736020〉
  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, Romaric Ludinard, Bruno Sericola, Erwan Le Merrer, Gilles Straub. FixMe: A Self-organizing Isolated Anomaly Detection Architecture for Large Scale Distributed Systems. Proceedings of the 16th International Conference On Principles Of Distributed Systems (OPODIS), Dec 2012, Rome, Italy. pp.12, 2012. 〈hal-00736922〉
  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, Yann Busnel. An Information Divergence Estimation over Data Streams. C.Elks. 11th IEEE International Symposium on Network Computing and Applications (IEEE NCA12), Aug 2012, Cambridge, MA, United States. IEEE, 11, pp.Number 72, 2012. 〈hal-00725097〉
  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, Yann Busnel, Sébastien Gambs. AnKLe: détection automatique d'attaques par divergence d'information. Mathieu, Fabien et Hanusse, Nicolas. 14èmes Rencontres Francophones sur les Aspects Algorithmiques des Télécommunications (AlgoTel), 2012, La Grande Motte, France. pp.1-4, 2012. 〈hal-00688352〉
  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, Yann Busnel, Sébastien Gambs. AnKLe: Detecting Attacks in Large Scale Systems via Information Divergence. Ninth European Dependable Computing Conference (EDCC 2012), May 2012, Sibiu, Romania. Springer-Verlag, pp.12, 2012, LNCS. 〈hal-00677077〉
  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, Romaric Ludinard, Bruno Sericola, Frédéric Tronel. Modélisation et Évaluation des Attaques Ciblées dans un Overlay Structuré. CFIP 2011 - Colloque Francophone sur l Ingénierie des Protocoles, May 2011, Sainte Maxime, France. 2011. 〈inria-00586875〉
  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, Christophe Bidan, Sébastien Gambs, Guillaume Hiet, Michel Hurfin, et al.. From SSIR to CIDre: a New Security Research Group in Rennes. 1st SysSec Workshop, Jul 2011, Amsterdam, Netherlands. 〈hal-00656940〉
  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, Bruno Sericola, Romaric Ludinard, Frédéric Tronel. Modeling and Evaluating Targeted Attacks in Large Scale Dynamic Systems. Proceedings of the 41rst 2011 International Conference on Dependable Systems and Networks (DSN), Jun 2011, Hong-Kong, China. pp.12, 2011. 〈hal-00650095〉
  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, Yann Busnel, Sébastien Gambs. Characterizing the Adversarial Power in Uniform and Ergodic Node Sampling. The 1st International Workshop on Algorithms and Models for Distributed Event Processing (AlMoDEP '11) collocated with the 25th International Symposium on Distributed Computing (DISC 2011), Sep 2011, Rome, Italy. ACM, 2011. 〈inria-00617866〉
  • Heverson Ribeiro, Emmanuelle Anceaume. Exploiting Rateless Coding in Structured Overlays to Achieve Data Persistence. IEEE Computer Society 2010. 24th IEEE International Conference on Advanced Information Networking and Applications, AINA 2010, Apr 2010, Perth, Australia. pp.1165-1172, 2010, ISBN 978-0-7695-4018-4. 〈hal-00554701〉
  • Heverson Ribeiro, Emmanuelle Anceaume. A Comparative Study of Rateless Codes for P2P Persistent Storage. LNCS 6366. International Conference in Stabilization, Safety, and Security of Distributed Systems, Sep 2010, New York, United States. pp.489-503, 2010, ISBN 978-3-642-16022-6. 〈hal-00554699〉
  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, Romaric Ludinard, Bruno Sericola. Analytic Study of the Impact of Churn in Cluster-Based Structured P2P Overlays. Proceedings of the International Conference on Communications (ICC 2010), May 2010, Cape Town, South Africa. pp.302--307, 2010. 〈hal-00476330〉
  • Heverson Borba Ribeiro, Emmanuelle Anceaume. DataCube: P2P Persistent Storage Architecture Based on Hybrid Redundancy Schema.. Proceedings of the 18th Euromicro Conference on Parallel, Distributed and Network-based Processing, Feb 2010, Pisa, Italy. pp.302--306, 2010, 〈10.1109/PDP.2010.60〉. 〈hal-00476286〉
  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, Yann Busnel, Sebastien Gambs. Uniform and Ergodic Sampling in Unstructured Peer-to-Peer Systems with Malicious Nodes. Springer. 14th International Conference On Principles Of Distributed Systems (OPODIS 2010), Dec 2010, Tozeur, Tunisia. pp.64--78, 2010, Lecture Notes in Computer Science 6490. 〈10.1007/978-3-642-17653-1_5〉. 〈hal-00554219〉
  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, Romaric Ludinard, Bruno Sericola, Frédéric Tronel, Francisco Brasileiro. Induced Churn to Face Adversarial Behavior in Peer-to-Peer Systems. Brief announcement. 11th International Symposium on Stabilization, Safety, and Security of Distributed Systems (SSS 2009), 2009, Lyon, France, 2009. 〈hal-00789582〉
  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, Romaric Ludinard, Frédéric Tronel, F. Brasiliero, Bruno Sericola. Analytical Study of Adversarial Strategies in Cluster-based Overlays. 2nd International Workshop on Reliability, Availability, and Security, 2009, Hiroshima, Japan. pp.12, 2009, 〈10.1109/PDCAT.2009.62〉. 〈hal-00408871〉
  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, F. Brasiliero, Romaric Ludinard, Bruno Sericola, Frédéric Tronel. Brief Announcement: Induced Churn to Face Adversarial Behavior in Peer-to-Peer Systems. The 11th International Symposium on Stabilization, Safety, and Security of Distributed Systems (SSS 2009), Nov 2009, Lyon, France. Springer Verlag Lecture Notes in Computer Science (LNCS) series (5873), pp. 773-774, 2009. 〈hal-00420559〉
  • Davide Frey, Jérôme Royan, Romain Piegay, Anne-Marie Kermarrec, Emmanuelle Anceaume, et al.. Solipsis: A Decentralized Architecture for Virtual Environments. 1st International Workshop on Massively Multiuser Virtual Environments, Mar 2008, Reno, NV, United States. 2008. 〈inria-00337057〉
  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, Romaric Ludinard, Aina Ravoaja, Francisco Brasiliero. PeerCube: an Hypercube-based P2P Overlay Robust against Collusion and Churn. IEEE International Conference on Self-Adaptive and Self-Organizing Systems, 2008, France. pp.12, 2008. 〈hal-00916734〉
  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, Carole Delporte-Gallet, Hugues Fauconnier, Michel Hurfin, Josef Widder. Clock Synchronization in the Byzantine-Recovery Failure Model. OPODIS, 2007, Pointe-à-Pitre, France. 2007. 〈inria-00264219〉
  • Vincent Gramoli, Emmanuelle Anceaume, Antonino Virgillito. SQUARE: Scalable Quorum-Based Atomic Memory with Local Reconfiguration. ACM. ACM Symposium on Applied Computing (SAC), 2007, France. pp.12, 2007. 〈hal-00916758〉
  • Aina Ravoaja, Emmanuelle Anceaume. STORM: A Secure Overlay for P2P Reputation Management. IEEE International Conference on Self-Adaptive and Self-Organizing Systems, 2007, France. pp.12, 2007. 〈hal-00916751〉
  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, Aina Ravoaja. Incentive-Based Robust Reputation Mechanism for P2P Services. International Conference on Principles of Distributed Systems (OPODIS), 2006, France. pp.12, 2006. 〈hal-00916744〉
  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, Maria Gradinariu, Aina Ravoaja. Incentive for P2P Fair Resource Sharing. The fifth IEEE International Conference on Peer-to-Peer Computing, Sep 2005, Konstanz/Germany, Germany. 2005. 〈inria-00000312〉
  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, Carole Delporte-Gallet, Hugues Fauconnier, Michel Hurfin, Gerard Le Lann. Modular Services with Byzantine Recovery,. DSN, Jun 2004, Florence, Italy. IEEE, pp.46-47, 2004, fast abstract. 〈hal-00154877〉
  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, Carole Delporte-Gallet, Hugues Fauconnier, Michel Hurfin, Gerard Le Lann. Designing Modular Services in the Sacattered Byzantine Failure Model. IEEE. ISPDC, Jul 2004, Cork, Ireland. IEEE, pp.262-269, 2004. 〈hal-00154866〉

Chapitre d'ouvrage1 document

  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, Gilles Guette, Paul Lajoie-Mazenc, Thomas Sirvent, Valérie Viet Triem Tong. Extending Signatures of Reputation. Hansen, M.; Hoepman, J.-H.; Leenes, R.; Whitehouse, D. Privacy and Identity Management for Emerging Services and Technologies : 8th IFIP WG 9.2, 9.5, 9.6/11.7, 11.4, 11.6 International Summer School, Nijmegen, The Netherlands, June 17-21, 2013, Revised Selected Papers, AICT-421, Springer, pp.165-176, 2014, IFIP Advances in Information and Communication Technology (TUTORIAL), 978-3-642-55136-9. 〈10.1007/978-3-642-55137-6_13〉. 〈hal-00997133〉

Direction d'ouvrage, Proceedings, Dossier1 document

Pré-publication, Document de travail7 documents

  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, Antoine Guellier, Romaric Ludinard. UTXOs as a proof of membership for Byzantine Agreement based Cryptocurrencies. 2018. 〈hal-01768190〉
  • Yves Mocquard, Bruno Sericola, Emmanuelle Anceaume. Balanced allocations and global clock in population protocols: An accurate analysis (Full version). 2018. 〈hal-01790973〉
  • Yves Mocquard, Bruno Sericola, Emmanuelle Anceaume. Population Protocols with Convergence Detection. 2018. 〈hal-01849441〉
  • Yves Mocquard, Bruno Sericola, Emmanuelle Anceaume. Probabilistic Analysis of Rumor Spreading Time. 2017. 〈hal-01652777〉
  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, Yann Busnel. Byzantine-tolerant Uniform Node Sampling Service. 2017. 〈hal-01634363〉
  • Yves Mocquard, Emmanuelle Anceaume, James Aspnes, Yann Busnel, Bruno Sericola. Counting with Population Protocols. 2015. 〈hal-01170575〉
  • Emmanuelle Anceaume, Yann Busnel, Bruno Sericola. New results on a generalized coupon collector problem using Markov chains. ACL. Preliminary version of the paper to appear in JAP (Journal of Applied Probability). 2014. 〈hal-01005333〉